The unseeded Czech knocked out a second top-10 player this week as she beat Rybakina 6-4, 5-7, 6-2 to advance to a meeting with reigning champion Aryna Sabalenka.
World number 60 Vondrousova, who beat seventh seed Jasmine Paolini in round three, is through to her fifth Grand Slam quarter-final. She finished runner-up at the French Open as a teenager in 2019.
The 26-year-old missed last year's US Open after undergoing shoulder surgery on the eve of the tournament. She also sat out the Australian Open in January.
"After everything I've been through it's amazing to be standing here again," Vondrousova said in her on-court interview.